Sunday, March 3, 2013

Thoughts About Learning



Prior to this class, I never thought that much about how people learn. I had developed effective learning strategies (thanks to many teachers), including how to take notes, organize information, review information, and remember information. Getting good grades and positive feedback motivated me. I knew these learning strategies worked for me, and I assumed everyone else used whatever strategies worked for them. I guess this makes me a Behaviorist and a Cognitivist. This semester, I realized that learning is very complex, involving attention, motivation, theoretical approaches, learning styles, and educational technologies, and an Instructional Designer must consider all of these factors.

My personal learning process contains elements of all of the learning theories we studied this semester. In addition to Behaviorism and Cognitivism, I am somewhat of a Connectivist.  My personal learning network supports the central concept of Connectivism that learning is “distributed within a network, social, and technologically enhanced” (Davis, Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman, 2008). I identify with the Bobby and the Mustang example of Connectivism provided by Davis, Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman (2008), in which Bobby uses various aspects of his personal learning network to restore a 1967 Ford Mustang. Like Bobby, I use Web 2.0 tools like blogs, RSS readers, and social networking applications to expand my personal learning network when I am learning something new. These technology tools facilitate learning best for me because they help me subscribe to, save, and organize information that interests me.

In addition to learning about my personal learning process, I was surprised to learn how much issues like attention span and motivation affect student learning. Ormrod, Schunk & Gredler state that “attention is a necessary prerequisite of learning” (56). As an Instructional Designer, understanding the role of attention in learning will help me design learning materials that engage students. Ormrod, Schunk & Gredler (2009) discuss tips for maintaining student attention, such as using a variety of presentations, learning materials, student activities, and teaching styles so that the classroom doesn’t become repetitive and predictable. I will try to use a variety of techniques to maintain student attention, such as discussions, interactive quizzes that give feedback, group projects, and more.  I will try and appeal to students’ interests and make learning meaningful to them, an important point emphasized by Ormrod, Schunk & Gredler (2009, p. 48, 58). I can make learning meaningful by understanding who the students are and what kinds of degrees they are seeking, and providing anecdotes, case studies, and hands-on learning activities that are tailored to the interests and goals of these students.

In addition to attention, it’s important for Instructional Designers to consider motivation. Motivation can be an issue in the online environment, where students may not feel a sense of community. Keller (1999) says that there are serious motivational challenges among distance learners:  “Students’ comments often focus on their feelings of isolation, lack of feeling of making steady progress, and great doubts about being able to finish the course given their other responsibilities and time constraints” (p. 43). Vygotsky’s theory includes the notion that learners construct motivational beliefs about their ability levels (Ormrod, Schunk, & Gredler, 2009, p. 221). To address motivation, I will use the ARCS motivational design technique as shown by Keller (1999) in Table 4.1 (p. 41). Completing these motivational design matrices will allow me to target specific aspects of a course with motivational strategies, including sending unexpected motivational messages, providing scaffolding in assignments such as “process modeling” and “question prompting,” and including technical support opportunities and modeling effective learning strategies (e.g., a “learn how to learn online” session) (Lim, 2004, p. 17-18). When considering motivation, I think it’s also important to consider principles of Constructivism and Adult learning theory, which stress the importance of social learning and group interaction. LMS tools such as Discussion groups and Web Conferencing tools can allow us to foster a unique sense of collaboration and community in the online environment.

The most striking concept I learned this semester is the idea of matching course content with the appropriate instructional approach. I have always tried to use a variety of instructional strategies and techniques so as to appeal to many types of learners. I am most familiar with the definition of learning styles presented by McCarthy (1981), as quoted by Gilbert & Swanier (2008), who contends that there are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners. The concept that will have the biggest impact on me as an Instructional Designer is the idea that students’ learning styles may change depending on the course, content, or learning objective.  Gilbert & Swanier (2008) state that the “learning styles of students may fluctuate within the context of a course from concept to concept, or lesson to lesson. These findings suggest that students needed repetitive instruction while varying the instructional method before mastering each concept” (37). This suggests that we should be more concerned with aligning instructional methods with the content being taught, rather than trying to match content with the various “learning styles” of students. Learning about the various learning theories has already helped me consider what types of content are best suited to certain instructional approaches.

The Learning Theories matrix helped me understand that elements of each learning theory are useful with different learners in different situations, and sometimes multiple learning theories are useful in a particular instructional situation. An Instructional Designer must also consider attention, motivation, learning styles, educational technologies, the students, and the learning environment. Overall, the Ertmer & Newby (1993) article was critical for my understanding of the different learning theories and as an Instructional Designer, I will practice their advice: “The critical question instructional designers must ask I not ‘Which is the best theory?’ but ‘Which theory is the most effective in fostering mastery of specific tasks by specific learners?” (p. 64).

Sources
Davis, C., Edmunds, E., & Kelly-Bateman, V. (2008). Connectivism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Connectivism

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4),50-71.

Gilbert, J., & Swanier, C. (2008). Learning styles: How do they fluctuate? Institute for Learning Styles Journal [Vol. l]. Retrieved from http://www.auburn.edu/~witteje/ilsrj/Journal%20Volumes/Fall%202008%20Volume%201%20PDFs/Learning%20Styles%20How%20do%20They%20Fluctuate.pdf

Keller, J. M. (1999). Using the ARCS motivational process in computer-based instruction and distance education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning (78).

Lim, C. P. (2004). Engaging learners in online learning environments. TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning, 48(4), 16–23.

Ormrod, J., Schunk, D., & Gredler, M. (2009). Learning theories and instruction (Laureate custom edition). New York: Pearson.

Sunday, February 24, 2013

Fitting the Pieces Together


When we began studying learning theories, I identified with the Cognitivist and Constructivist learning theories, which recognize the active role of the learner in the learning process. As someone who learns best with hands-on, real-world learning experiences, I identified the most with Constructivism, which allows learners the most flexibility and freedom in creating meaning. Initially I thought that the stimuli-response definition of Behaviorism described in the Ertmer & Newby article put the learner in a very passive role and minimized the complexity of the learner and the learning process. However, I came to recognize that, as the Ertmer & Newby article pointed out, Instructional Designers need to consider the learners and the learning objectives and apply the learning theory that will be most effective.

Although I initially identified with Cognitivism and Constructivism, Connectivism is the best match for me when describing how I learn. When I read the Bobby and the Mustang example of Connectivism provided by Davis, Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman (2008), in which Bobby uses various aspects of his personal learning network to learn about restoring a 1967 Ford Mustang, I felt like it was describing me (except my interest is in cooking, not cars). Like Bobby, I start expanding my personal learning network whenever I am attempting to learn something new, and my network has grown increasingly digital. Web 2.0 tools like blogs, RSS readers, and social networking applications facilitate learning best for me because they integrate text, audio, and video, and because they help me subscribe to, save, and organize information that interests me. 

After completing the Learning Theories matrix, I see Constructivism being much less successful as the primary theoretical perspective in the online courses I support, where students need clearly defined objectives, instruction, and assessments. I feel that elements of each learning theory are useful with different learners in different situations, and sometimes multiple learning theories are useful in a particular instructional situation. In my position as an Instructional Designer for an online MBA program, some of the principles of Behaviorism are always present in our course design. For example, we set up online quizzes and assessments in our learning management system that provide students with immediate feedback, giving students opportunities to practice, and providing reinforcement for the correct responses. We also develop our courses around Quality Matters standards, which focuses on providing measurable outcomes (course-level and module-level) for student learning. However, some of our other assignments take on different theoretical approaches. For example, our courses that involve practicum work and internships take on a Constructivist approach. Many of the students in our online classes are working adults, so some assignments take on principles of Adult Learning Theory and Connectivism, such as group Discussions, project-based assignments, and the use of Web 2.0 and social networking tools.

One of the most important concepts I learned while studying the learning theories was the idea of matching content to instructional method, rather than trying to match content to learning styles, and the idea that learning styles can change depending on the content being taught. Gilbert & Swanier (2008) state that the “learning styles of students may fluctuate within the context of a course from concept to concept, or lesson to lesson. These findings suggest that students needed repetitive instruction while varying the instructional method before mastering each concept” (37). As an Instructional Designer, this concept will always be in the forefront of my mind. This suggests that we should be more concerned with aligning instructional methods with the content being taught, rather than trying to match content with the various “learning styles” of students. Learning about the various learning theories has already helped me consider what types of content are best suited to certain instructional approaches.

Sources
Davis, C., Edmunds, E., & Kelly-Bateman, V. (2008). Connectivism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Connectivism
Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4),50-71.
Gilbert, J., & Swanier, C. (2008). Learning styles: How do they fluctuate? Institute for Learning Styles Journal [Vol. l]. Retrieved from http://www.auburn.edu/~witteje/ilsrj/Journal%20Volumes/Fall%202008%20Volume%201%20PDFs/Learning%20Styles%20How%20do%20They%20Fluctuate.pdf

Friday, February 8, 2013

Mapping My Learning Connections



I really identified with the Bobby and the Mustang example of Connectivism provided by Davis, Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman (2008), in which Bobby uses various aspects of his personal learning network to learn about restoring a 1967 Ford Mustang. Like Bobby, I start expanding my personal learning network whenever I am attempting to learn something new, and my network has grown increasingly digital. Web 2.0 tools like blogs, RSS readers, and social networking applications facilitate learning best for me because they integrate text, audio, and video, and because they help subscribe to, save, and organize information that interests me. 

A few months ago I watched the movie Forks Over Knives, and I was so intrigued by this movie that ever since then I have been learning everything I can about plant-based diets.

I started with the Forks Over Knives website, looking for recipes and more information, and through some postings on this web site, I found various blogs authored by people who follow plant-based diets. Sometimes I would also do Google searches for certain recipes and discover blogs that way. I started following these blogs through Google Reader.

Most blogs have Pinterest widgets, so it was easy to start “pinning” recipes off the blogs…soon I was using Pinterest to save and organize all my recipes, and then I started following the Pinterest boards of the various blog authors I follow.

Most blogs also have Facebook widgets, so I also started to follow various people on Facebook who post information about plant-based diets and vegan recipes.

I started trying various vegan recipes, and around this time, I got an iPad, so I was looking for ways to use the iPad in ways that would be meaningful for me. I first searched online for free vegan cookbooks to put on my iPad via the Kindle app. When I felt like I knew which recipe sources I liked best, I felt comfortable purchasing a cookbook. I recently purchased my first Kindle book from Amazon. I am excited about making the move to a healthier lifestyle and going digital with all my recipes! Recently I even downloaded one of our weekly course readings as an eBook via the eBrary app for the iPad.

In the past, my learning involved a lot more printed books and printing things out. I would have invested in numerous printed cookbooks and printed out various recipes. I might buy a cookbook and then end up not using it much. I used to have binders of printed recipes, and more cookbooks than my bookcases would hold. Today, thanks to blogs and the other tools I mentioned, I am able to learn a lot about a topic like vegan cooking without spending any money until I am comfortable doing so. I also don’t have to waste any paper, ink, or take up space in my house.

I feel that my personal learning network has made so much information available to me that I otherwise may never have encountered. I would go as far as to say that this topic may never have been introduced to me at all, if not for the way the Internet and Web 2.0 tools make information widely available.

My personal learning network has also put learning in my own hands. I no longer have to wait and rely on someone else for knowledge, such as by taking a class, purchasing a book, or completing some sort of training. I can seek out a lot of information on my own—in my own time and at my own pace. I can choose my own opportunities for hands-on practice and integrate the hands-on practice at any point that I want to. Having said this, I do feel that because information is so widely available you do need to be critical of your sources and evaluate whether they are reputable and reliable, and that is why I take time to follow sources and get to know their content and reliability.

Just like Bobby and the Mustang, my personal learning network supports the central concept of Connectivism that learning is “distributed within a network, social, and technologically enhanced” (Davis, Edmunds, & Kelly-Bateman, 2008).

Davis, C., Edmunds, E., & Kelly-Bateman, V. (2008). Connectivism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Connectivism

Sunday, January 20, 2013

Articles on Information Processing Theory



Ally, M. (2004). Foundations of educational theory for online learning. In T. Anderson & F. Elloumi (Eds.), Theory and practice of online learning (1-31). Athabasca : Athabasca University.

This paper discusses behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist educational theories as the basis for designing effective online learning materials, and suggests a model for developing online instruction based on the appropriate educational theory. Although this article is nine years old, the information is still relevant and useful, and provides a strong instructional design foundation for developing online learning materials.

Willingham, D. T. (2008). Ask the cognitive scientist: what will improve a student’s memory? American Educator, Winter (2008-2009), 17-25.

The author discusses how memory works and provides examples and strategies for how to improve a student’s memory. This article is very interesting, as it includes anecdotes and various tips and strategies in graphic and outline format.

Oppenheimer, D. M., & Frank, M. C., A rose in any other font would not smell as sweet:  effects of perceptual fluency on categorization. Cognition, (2007), doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.05.010

This study proves that making something hard to read means it is more likely to be remembered. The article is not very useful to me, as it contains no application to teaching, or application to anything, for that matter, and I don’t think there was much point to this study. I can’t see educators and instructional designers deliberately making their learning materials difficult to read.